Optimal Functioning in Sport Psychology: Helping Athletes Find Their "Zone of Excellence"

By Wes Sime, Ph.D, Thomas W. Allen, Ed.D. and Catalina Fazzano, Ph.D

Abstract: Sport psychologists and peak achievement trainers are continuously seeking cutting edge methods of achieving the most expedient route to confidence, trust in one's ability, appropriate focus, composure and explosive power with graceful, efficient movement patterns. This is characteristic of almost all high level performance including team and individual sports, as well as aesthetic performances in music, dance, artistry, etc. All are rewarded when graceful yet powerful movements can be performed with seemingly effortless composure

While applied psychophysiology and competitive stress management are essential components of effective performance in sport, the applications of traditional biofeedback (EMG,Temp, EDR and Heart Rate) have been limited. The demonstration of stress and tension outcomes before and during performance is extremely enlightening for athletes and coaches, however the actual use of feedback in training and competition has been only moderately useful in shaping athlete's performance toward excellence, primarily because of the obtrusiveness of equipment and sensors. Obviously the same problem exists for traditional neurofeedback, wherein the sophistication of 10-20 lead placements (with sticky EEG paste), complicated filters, multiple channel interpretation, and exotic feedback display makes it far too cumbersome for use in a competitive field setting.

Today’s portable, user-friendly neurofeedback equipment, however, has the practical advantage of being readily accessible while also providing face validity via a feedback signal -- labeled as a "concentration line" -- that is inversely related to the quality of visualization a performer may experience in preparation for competition. It is generally easy for the client to become absorbed in vivid mental rehearsal that is reinforced by objective confirmation of attentional focus on the concentration line. It is even more relevant to optimal performance if the apparatus is portable and can be utilized in the backstage or sidelines of competition, wherein all the stimuli are realistic distractions for the client to struggle with and hopefully overcome.

While we admire our colleagues who have access to (and the skills to use) the most sophisticated neurofeedback equipment available, we have opted to rely primarily on simple equipment that is less complicated for our protocols with athletes and other performers who have no clinical symptoms. On some occasions we refer clients to our peers for more sophisticated clinical assessment and treatment (with or without QEEG when symptoms indicate the need). Using a simpler format with portable, and user-friendly equipment, we find our clients are less reluctant to engage in training activities than if we were to utilize obtrusive measurements. Thus we routinely use the neurofeedback system called the Peak Achievement TrainerÔ (PAT). The PAT emphasizes a wideband signal, which includes all cortical activity in the frequency range of 0.5 to 40 Hz, measured at a forehead site just below the hairline. Concentrating more intensely inhibits or lowers the amplitude of this signal, which is therefore referred to as the "InhibitAllband" (or "InAll") level. Our case examples include performance training in diving, golf, equestrian (jumping), and music, with a minor focus on ADD/HD.

Neurofeedback Training in Diving

Case Study #1: The diver missed his opening dive from the platform ten meters above the water and landed hard "splat" on his back. The result was a fracture of the transverse process of one of his thoracic vertebrae. In effect he had figuratively "broken his back." He was ambulatory but had considerable pain during six months of rehabilitation.

As the months of recovery passed slowly, he became increasingly frustrated that he was falling behind his teammates while unable to practice in the pool. During history and intake, this diver mentioned that he had used imagery routinely for his diving in the past, but had difficulty doing so at the present time. Thus when offered a chance to try neurofeedback for the purpose of enhancing the quality and intensity of his visualization process, he eagerly accepted. In weekly sessions lasting 30-50 minutes, the diver alternated between watching a video of his previous healthy diving with several 2-5 minute bouts of doing neurofeedback while creating slow and meticulously designed visualization of the dive. He was encouraged to add a kinesthetic (feeling) component to his visualization exercises. Observations of his work on the neurofeedback showed that he became very composed during the training and was almost entranced by the experience.

In the first opportunity to compete after eight neurofeedback training sessions over as many weeks, the diver won a major competition. While this could be a spurious outcome, the coach's comment after the meet was quite interesting. He said, "I don't know what you were doing with all that brain stuff, but it is literally unheard of in the world of diving to have an athlete come off a major injury with minimal preparation time in the water and win a meet like this. Before his injury, this kid could do well in 8 out of 10 dives, but now he is a 'diver,' i.e., he makes something positive out of all 10 competitive dives."

Later in the season with minimal follow-up training, this diver won the League Championships in NCAA Division I competition. Shortly thereafter, during a critical time for preparation in the NCAA Championships, the diver was arbitrarily and unavoidably deprived of booster sessions on the neurofeedback as he faced more intense competition and anxiety. In effect, the treatment was withdrawn and shortly thereafter his performance faltered dramatically. While the outcome could have been coincidental, the diver reported in debriefing that he was simply not able to replicate the intense imagery that had accounted for previous success when using the neurofeedback. As a result of the performance decrements, he missed the opportunity to participate in the Olympic trials.

In this single case, quasi-experimental A-B-A design, it appeared that initiation of neurofeedback training followed by withdrawal thereof was related to the patterns of success and failure for a performer coming off a very serious injury and rehabilitation. Furthermore the coach's report that the diver's performance after neurofeedback training surpassed that which the diver had achieved pre-injury seems to substantiate our enthusiasm for this application of neurofeedback with divers.

Neurofeedback Training With Golfers

Much of what we study in sport psychology is manifested in subtle cognitive experiences that only appear in self-report. Athletes tell us about the level of concentration or distraction experienced during their best and worst performances and we seek to improve performances using exercises designed to channel their cognitions to replicate ideal states of consciousness leading to outstanding performances. Unfortunately, some athletes have very unreliable self-reports either because they lack awareness thereof or because they were overwhelmed by outside factors that mask their intuitive perceptions. Thus we seek technology and methodologies that afford us a window into the minds of athletes (or other skilled performers) as they rehearse to reflect upon ideal states of attention and concentration either performing a task or imaging it in real time. The results are noted in Case Studies # 2-5.

Case Study #2: We observed that when skilled readers read or when experienced meditators meditate, the concentration line on the neurofeedback (PAT) goes down indicating a reduction in the "idling rhythms" (0.5 to 40 Hz. at AFz). We therefore decided to monitor data on a number of recreational golfers and local pros, while they took 33 putts of 6, 10, and 20-feet. The output of the neurofeedback concentration line (on the PAT) was ordered in virtually every case in such a way that it was meaningfully related to the degree of accuracy of the putts. Surprisingly, EMG artifact was not a problem, as the movement of the club by the golfer had no discernible effect on the EEG record.

Of course putting is a multi-factorial event. Across players the various elements of process pull different weights. Sometimes concentration is a major player; at other times it is eclipsed by other factors. Sometimes concentration is more crucial during the planning of a shot (period 1); sometimes during the preparation to take the shot (period 2); and sometimes at the point of action (period 3).

Most players appear to utilize variations from a general pattern. There are significant valleys in the Peak Achievement TrainingÔ EEG record (indicating heightened concentration) during period 1 (planning). That is, players concentrate for a moment on the nature of the shot. Then they relax for a few seconds before bearing down again as they prepare (period 2), accessing the (visual or kinesthetic) template for the shot they believe they need. Finally they take a last short break before turning up concentration levels once more right before the backswing.

For one dedicated recreational golfer, concentration appeared to play a major role in how true to the target the surface of his putter head was as he struck the ball (period 3). Thus, the mean InAll score at the moment of contact was significantly lower at contact for the 7 putts that were on target than it was for the 18 putts that were not (t=3.655; p=.001).

Case Study #3: On the other hand, for an experienced instructor, the "preparation phase" (period 2) was critical. The level of concentration he achieved during the second phase of the putting process predicted how close his 20-ft. putts were to the target. Concentration was measured by how low the InAll score went during this phase (r=0.69, p = .003).

Case Study #4: For another veteran 2-handicap player, it was the first stage or "planning phase" that was most telling. The greater the level of concentration during pre-shot routine and the lower it was as he struck the ball, the better the outcome of the putt. More specifically, we measured "putting error", the number of inches the ball ends up from the cup after the putt. Putting error correlated r = 0.63 (p =.009) with the delta (difference between level of concentration during preparation from that recorded when the ball was struck). However, in one trial his performance slipped dramatically when he was asked to formulate what he was thinking about during the putt. Not surprisingly, his concentration was disturbed and he "choked" dramatically during the contemplation of a narrative for his thoughts.

Case Study #5: Ironically, performance for one novice golfer actually improved under the "thinking" conditions described above. In this case, a very well-ordered picture of the relationship between the PAT measure of concentration and putting performance was observed, i.e., the better he concentrated, the worse he putted. For this individual, there was an inverse correlation between concentration and putting error r= -0.637 (p=.014). As an after thought in one of those trials, it was suggested that he focus only on the stroke. Giving up his usual concern with a host of other variables and attending only to "the feel of the stroke" this inexperienced golfer produced his best putt and his highest level of concentration.

In summary of the golfing case studies, while matching this EEG index of concentration with levels of performance in putting, the neurofeedback "concentration line" behaved just as one would expect a valid measure of attention to behave. Thus it appears that optimal level of concentration at various phases of performance may differ dramatically among participants, and across different cognitive strategies.

Neurofeedback Training in Equestrian Sports

Case Study #6: The use of EEG biofeedback in equestrian sports has not been reported previously. The client was a 13-year-old dyslexic, female rider with six years of competitive experience, who was treated on a short-term crisis intervention basis. She had been experiencing difficulty completing the course that involved eight jumps over fences in a judged event. In addition she had previously experienced several falls instilling emotional trauma or performance anxiety and was intimidated by a parent who was impatient and quite verbally abusive.

This client was trained on neurofeedback in two separate sessions, each conducted at the competition site and immediately prior to her getting on her horse. The sessions consisted of training in concentration followed by visualization of the course while sitting next to the show ring. Emphasis was placed on planning for appropriate spots where she needed to narrow the focus of her concentration. At the end of the first day of competition following session one of training, this rider was awarded a third place ribbon, the first time she placed all season. A week later, she had her second training session immediately prior to competition under much more difficult circumstances.

The previous year she had been traumatized by a bad fall during competition at the same site where she was about to compete. Fortunately her neurofeedback training went very well and she was successful immediately thereafter in the competition. Following these brief, but intense training sessions, this client was able to ride without fear and with continued success for the rest of the season, undeterred by the trauma of previous falls.

Neurofeedback Cross-Training Effects

It is interesting to note that clients seen primarily for athletic, artistic or academic (ADD/HD) concerns often report independently that their training effects spill over to another area of their lives. For example, training that is intended for academic deficiencies may have treatment outcomes not specifically addressed in therapy. Case Study #7 exemplifies this principle.

Case Study #7. The client was a 9-year-old male with a history of academic and behavioral difficulties and a diagnosis of AD/HD. He was failing academically and had been lying to his parents about it. The mother had been told by a neurologist that, "You should resign herself to the fact that your son will never be a brain surgeon" (apparently because of his AD/HD).

Both parents were opposed to the use of Ritalin and were seeking an alternative treatment. This child received 30 neurofeedback training sessions, which included work on the PAT as well as SMR and hand warming using the Biograph/Multitrace. Additionally two screens were created that would assist in lowering theta at Cz, with an occasional attempt to increase beta at the same site. The results were remarkable.

After 12 sessions, his teacher reported that he was finishing all his schoolwork, and a normal TOVA was obtained after 16. At the 27th session it was reported that his behavior in the classroom was acceptable and that he was able to remain on task for extended periods. He had a normal Connors’ Rating Scale as noted by his teachers at school and by his parents. At 8-week follow up he continued to show progress; his grades were mostly A's and B's.

To our surprise, while the treatment was not initiated for performance beyond the classroom, this young child had independently learned to read music and to play several tunes on the piano during the period that he was undergoing the neurofeedback training. Previously, at least three music teachers had given up on trying to teach him to play the piano.

Summary and Conclusion

Helping athletes and other elite performers find their "Zone of Excellence" is a very complex, frustrating task. Until recently, there has been no technical or behavioral strategy that would reliably allow a performer to get into the Zone on command. It is an elusive state of mind/body performance that occurs infrequently and is almost never at the disposal of the person who experiences it. One cannot make it happen. It just occurs spontaneously under rare circumstances usually in the context of being fairly relaxed and unconcerned.

Neurofeedback that transforms the conglomerate brainwave signal into a single, meaningfully relevant display of the athlete's concentration or level of attentional focus appears to be one salient route to get close to "The Zone." When the user learns quickly to become totally absorbed in a single focus of attention (whether task relevant or not), he or she may be on a course leading to an ideal state of consciousness for performance.

When athletes become experienced at controlling their attentional focus simply by watching the screen as a reflection of low idling rhythms, then it is possible to introduce more complex tasks such as reviewing a bad performance and revising it to correct the errors. We also postulate that the most advanced control of this attentional process involves the ability to switch quickly from an idling mode in one central task to a secondary task and alternately shifting back again with ease and control. This is called multi-tasking and we do it routinely while driving an automobile with kids and traffic. The ability to shift between a narrow intense internal focus to a broad externally vigilant attentiveness rapidly is the essence of control for flexibility in elite performance.

With our clinical case studies of outstanding performers in diving, golf and equestrian, we have illustrated unique examples our efforts to identify optimal states of consciousness for performance as well as the ability to shape the attentional focus relatively quickly. The quintessential contribution of neurofeedback to performance in sport is to give the client the opportunity to become more aware of the internal processes associated with success versus failure. In effect, this training enriches the discovery process for novice as well as experienced performers.

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Footnotes

ⁱ [Editor’s Note] This protocol features a placement of one active monopolar electrode in the midline on the forehead, just below the (non-receded) hairline, 17% of the distance from the nasion to the inion. The protocol defines the InAll signal as an integration of cortical activity between 0.5 Hz and 40 Hz. The manufacturer of "The Peak Achievement Trainer™," Neurotechnology, Inc., states that the patented protocol defines the "concentration line" as the inverse of the Inall level. The InAll level is also inversely related to attention in performance tasks. The more the subject focuses on a task, the lower the concentration line drops. The manufacturer warns that results may not be reproducible on other equipment, due to differences in signal filtering, averaging, and/or display.

ⁱⁱ All of the case studies cited here were presented in October, 2000 at the Association for the Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology, held in Nashville, TN.